Kindly note that Humid Forest is further classified into:

1.     Lowland rainforest

2.     Freshwater swamp forest

3.     Mangrove forest and coastal vegetation

Mid Altitude is also known as Jos Plateau.

·         Soybean seeds easily lose their viability.

·         It is common for soybeans, even when stored properly, not to germinate after 12 –15 months in storage.

·         Therefore, use seeds that are not more than 12 months old to ensure good germination. Sort out the good seeds for planting to ensure that they are free from insects, disease infestation, and weed seeds.

·         Do not purchase seeds from the open market as the germination potential is not guaranteed.

·         Planting poor-quality seeds will not produce a good yield.

·          Always buy seeds from seed companies or seed producers nearest to you.

·       Maize is more extensively distributed globally than any other cereal crop because it adapts to a wide range of climates.

·       It needs a lot of sunshine and warmth and most cultivars have little sensitivity to photo period. The best maize regions are those which receives an annual precipitation of between 600-1000mm, although it also successfully grown under irrigation, after the cold harmattan period (winter period) is over.

·        It does not tolerate low temperature below 13^oC which may occur during the dry harmatan period, in which germination is low. During harmatan periods, fresh maize cobs are in great demand and are often scarce because supply is low.

·       Sellers of all soil fertility improvement and weather apparatus constitute stakeholders related to soils and climate.

·       The ideal soil for maize is a deep, medium-textured, fertile soil with a high water holding capacity in the pH range of 5.5-8.0.

·       In the southern parts of the country where vegetation cover is fairly dense, land clearing should be carried out well ahead of the rains.

·       Make ridges as soon as the rains start. Although the crop benefits from the deep cultivation, maize yields are not reduced when zero tillage is adopted.

·        For high grain yield, sow maize in well prepared ridges of 75cm apart. Because the soils in the savannas are loose, animal drawn implements can be used for preparing ridges or by had hoe and tractor mounted tillage equipment.

• The time of sowing is the most critical factor affecting maize yield (if sown early it will mature in rains, which will affect the quality of grains and when sown late it will result in poor yield).
• Plant as soon as the rains are established, preferably immediately after a good rain. The establishment of the rains varies according to the different ecological zones and from one year to another.
•  However, the optimum planting date in the major ecological zones usually lies within
  the following ranges:
•  For Humid Zone: Late February March for the first season and late July-August for the second season

• Treat maize seeds before planting using recommended dressing chemicals in order to protect them against soil borne pests, diseases and bird attack before and after germination.
• Recommended chemicals for treating seeds include Marshal 2% dust, Apron Star 50DS, All-star, Dress Force, Seed Plus, and others. Use 10g to treat between 2 and 5kg of seed depending on the brand of seed dressing chemical available.
•  Wash your hands thoroughly, with soap and water after treating the seeds and after planting treated seeds. Read the label of all agrochemical products before using the products.

Plant at a spacing of 75cm x 50cm when two plants per stand or 75 x 25cm when one plant per stand is adopted.

Pests of SAMMAZ 63

Diseases of SAMMAZ 63

·         Rice can be grown practically on all types of soil, sandy loams to heavy clays

·     A heavy soil, slightly acidic to neutral (PH 5.5 to 7.0) is suitable for rice growing. High yields are usually associated with soils that have a high clay content of 40 to 60%. The soil should contain a moderate amount of organic matter with high degree of humification and good but not excessive drainage to minimize water loss.

·       Fertile land with good drainage and water retention capacity (contains some clay and/or organic matter i.e., loamy soil) and are slightly acidic to near neutral. Heavy soils are considered most desirable.

·         Where slope is significant, take necessary soil and water conservation measures such as planting across slope.

·         Rice can be grown practically on all types of soil, sandy loams to heavy clays

·         A heavy soil, slightly acidic to neutral (PH 5.5 to 7.0) is suitable for rice growing. High yields are usually associated with soils that have a high clay content of 40 to 60%. The soil should contain a moderate amount of organic matter with high degree of humification and good but not excessive drainage to minimize water loss.

·         Fertile land with good drainage and water retention capacity (contains some clay and/or organic matter i.e., loamy soil) and are slightly acidic to near neutral. Heavy soils are considered most desirable.

·         Where slope is significant, take necessary soil and water conservation measures such as planting across slope.

·           Mechanization: For newly cleared areas, cut big trees before the rains preferably from November to February and remove all stumps, roots and trees before ploughing. Plough once and disc harrow twice with the first rains from late February to early March to make good tilt if land is flat. Plough twice and disc harrow once if land is sloppy.

·           Manual Cultivation: Clear and pack bush between November and Febru­ary, and use hoe to remove bush and weeds. Land preparation can start in February, depending on the onset of rains.

·                     Proper land preparation is necessary in rice production to minimize competition with weeds, enhances adequate mixture of stubbles and fertilizer as well as ensures uniform water distribution. Harrow the land twice to provide sufficient tilt for rice growth.

·                     Ridging is not necessary (unless the slope of the land is considerable) and often leads to low population and yields. Upland rice is better planted on flat.

·                     the field should be disc plowed immediately after harvest to expose the rhizomes of perennial weeds to scorching action of the sun.

·                     For direct seeded rice, the field is ploughed and harrowed just before the first rain, and the crop is seeded. For wet or transplanted rice, the field is flooded with the first rains and then rotavated using a power tiller.

·                     Construct bunds depending upon the slope, to accumu­late rain water and cover the paddy field with water to prevent the loss of nitrogen through denitrification. Divide the field into plots of 50-100m² for better water management.  Level the land to reduce erosion.

·         It is advisable to site nursery beds near cultivation areas to ease management.

·         Soak the seeds in water for 24 hours.

·         Spread them on the floor and incubate them by covering them with polyethylene bags for 48 hours for the seeds to sprout.

·         To provide seedlings for 1 ha of land, raise the nursery in 500m².

·         Plough the land to a very fine texture and construct raised beds of about 1.2m wide.

·         A mixture of 60g Urea and 42.6g SSP/m² should be worked thoroughly into the soil before sowing seeds.

·         Avoid bird damage during germination by scaring birds.

·         In gall midge affected areas, apply FuradanTM (Carbofuran) at 1 kg/ha in nursery beds a week before transplanting.

·         Seed treatment protects the crop from seed borne diseases and insects as well as gives better germination.

·         Chemical treatment should be undertaken with a mixture of insecticide and fungicide. Cardinal seed/Apron Star dressing chemical at one sachet/4kg seed or Seed-plus at one sachet/2kg seed

·         Seed priming involves acceleration of germination and emergence by soaking the seeds in cold water for 12 hours or overnight and then drained. For direct seeding, seeds are air-dried for about two hours and then sown.

·         Advantages include higher percentage of viable seeds, vigorously established plants that can withstand stress and higher yields. It also gives higher level of germination, reduces the need to replant or fill the gaps, leads to more uniform plant stands, leads to more vigorous growth at early stages which enables the rice to compete better with weeds Increases resistance to insect pests and diseases, increases paddy yield.

·         Integrated nutrient management is the management of both organic and inorganic plant nutrients for optimal rice production while conserving the natural resource base essential for long-term sustainability. It consists of:

-       Application of plant nutrient on the basis of soil test recommendation.

-       Use of organic manures, crop residues, green manures, bio-fertilizers and soil amendments.

-       Proper time and method of nutrient application.

-       Proper management of water

·         The amount of fertilizer to apply depends on the quantities and level of residual nutrients in the soil and the type of fertilizer materials available. It is advisable to apply fertilizer doses based on soil test results and expected yield. 

·         Rice responds well to nitrogen fertilization. The recommended doses of major plant nutrients to rice are 70-50-40, 60–30–30 and 80-30-30 N, P and K/ha respectively under upland (Sahel and Northern Guinea Savanna upland), (Southern Guinea Savanna) and Forest and shallow swamp rice ecosystems. For efficient management of chemical fertilizers, the following are to be taken into consideration.

-       Nitrogenous fertilizers are to be applied in a greater number of splits. The lighter the soil, the more will be the number of splits. It is usually applied in three splits –40 % N at the time of planting, top dressed with 30% N 4 weeks after planting/ at the time of tillering and the other 30% N at 7 weeks after the planting or when the crop start to flower (panicle initiation stage).

-       Full amount of phosphate and potassium fertilizers are to be applied during the time of final land preparation.

-       In virgin soils and land that has been under 1 to 2 years fallow cropped with rice, apply a moderate rate of N (60 kg/ ha) and on older soils, apply a higher rate (80 kg/ha). Top dressing of N fertilizer should be applied between the rows and buried. The P and K fertilizers may be applied by broadcasting before sowing if applied separately. However, application times may vary due to weather constraints and individual farmers.

For lowland rice (shallow swamp, irrigated, hydromophic and inland valley swamp) apply   half the N and all P and K at planting and the remainder broadcast at 6 - 10 weeks after planting at panicle initiation stage.

PLANTING DATES, TIME AND METHODS

Planting Methods

Direct Seeding

·         When the seeds are viable (germination rate of more than 80%), seeding rate of 50–60 kg/ ha is recommended for dibble sowing, 80 kg/ ha for sowing by drilling and 80–100 kg/ha by broadcasting.

·         If germination percentage is less than 80%, the seed rates should be increased accordingly. Plant the rice seed at a depth of 2 to 4 cm. When rice is planted at a depth more than 5 cm, the emergence of the young seedlings is delayed.

·         Divide the field into plots of 50 m² or 100 m², and construct small bunds. Direct seeding can be done with pre-germinated seeds in wet soils. Dibble 5–6 seeds at a spacing of 25 cm between rows and 20 cm intra row and later thin to 3 to 4 seedlings per stand at 2 to 3 weeks after sowing. In drilling method, drill rows should be 15–20 cm apart.

       Dibbling method of planting rice, Below: Drill method of planting rice

Sowing date

·         The actual timing of sowing should be guided by the time of establishment of the rains, sowing rice in rows makes manual weeding easier.

·         In the forest area, plant in mid-March to mid-April, after 2 to 3 good rains.

·         In the savannah, plant rice in mid-May to Mid-June, depending on the rain establishment.

Transplanting

·         Transplant seedlings from nursery after 21 days or at 2 – 6 leaf stage. This is done by carefully uprooting the seedlings. Transplant 2–3 seedlings per hill. Spacing should be 20 cm between rows and 15–20cm between plants.

·         Transplant early maturing varieties 15 cm apart and transplant medium and late maturing varieties 20 cm apart. Use remaining seedlings to gap fill the areas where seeds have not germinated 7–10 days after transplanting.

Plant Population

·         In dibbling or direct seeding, sow seeds 25 x 25 cm to give 160,000 stands/ha. Use a “pinch” or 4 to 5 seeds paddy per hole. Plant about 3-5cm deep, cover lightly and press. In drilling method, drill in rows 15–20 cm apart

WATER MANAGEMENT

·         With adequate water supply, rice can be grown in most parts of the country.

·         Rice requires an annual evenly distributed rainfall of 12000 – 1600mm.  

·         The crop is most sensitive to water stress in the reproductive stage.

·         Where water is available, irrigate the crop at tillering, panicle initiation (PI) flowing, milking and dough stage. Collect maximum rain water by strengthening field bunds.

·          In transplanted rice, water should not be allowed to stand in field for 5-7 days after transplanting. Maintain saturation to 3 cm standing water till 25-30 days after transplanting and low depth of 3-5 cm of water till 15 days after flowering.

·         The rice field is completely drained 10-15 days before harvesting to promote uniform ripening of the grains, but primarily to allow for a timely harvest. Dikes should be built across flood plains to control seasonal flooding during the months of July and August. Bunds should also be constructed around fields to conserve water and check erosion

WEED MANAGEMENT

Hand Weeding

·         Rice fields should be weeded regularly, especially during the early stages of growth. First weeding should be thorough and should be done within 2 to 3 weeks after emergence, using hoes. (The earlier the first weeding is done the better).

·         Second weeding should be done 5 to 6 weeks after emergence. Weed a third time, if necessary.

Use of herbicides

Pre-emergence

o   Propamil + oxidiazon at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 (5 liters Ronstar 400 EC/ha)

o   Glyphosate (3 litres ha), DO NOT spray GramoxeTM after the germination of paddy seed     2 weeks before planting followed by either

o   Post-emergence

·         Propanil + bentazon at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 ( 5 litres Basagram 500PLha^-1)

·         Propanil + Fluorodifen at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 (5 litres Risane 3000ECha^-1)

·         Propanil + thiobencarb at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 ( 5 11tres Tamarice 336ECha^-1) 2 - 3 weeks after planting

WEED MANAGEMENT

Hand Weeding

·         Rice fields should be weeded regularly, especially during the early stages of growth.

·         First weeding should be thorough and should be done within 2 to 3 weeks after emergence, using hoes. (The earlier the first weeding is done the better).

·         Second weeding should be done 5 to 6 weeks after emergence. Weed a third time, if necessary.

Use of herbicides

Pre-emergence

·         Propamil + oxidiazon at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 (5 liters Ronstar 400 EC/ha)

·         Glyphosate (3 litres ha), DO NOT spray GramoxeTM after the germination of paddy seed     2 weeks before planting followed by either

Post-emergence

·         Propanil + bentazon at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 ( 5 litres Basagram 500PLha^-1)

·         Propanil + Fluorodifen at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 (5 litres Risane 3000ECha^-1)

·         Propanil + thiobencarb at 3.0kg a.i. ha^-1 ( 5 11tres Tamarice 336ECha^-1) 2 - 3 weeks after planting

·         Any resistant weed species or newly ger­minating weeds like corn grass should be removed and destroyed.

·         A weed-free seed-bed at planting also contributes to the effectiveness of the herbicides.  Caution must always be exercised in selecting and handling all herbicides.

Striga attack on rice

·         Striga is increasingly becoming a serious problem in rice production. This weed is a parasite which germinates only when the plants (hosts) which it attacks are present. Striga is common in soils that have been used continuously and are poor in nutrients. The symptoms of Striga damage on the host crop can be seen before the parasite emerges from the soil.

·         Usually, the symptoms are similar to those on drought affected crops and include stunted growth, wilting, yellowing and scorching of leaves, lower yield and plant death in severe attacks. Striga produces numerous tiny seeds which make it easy for the parasite to spread from place to place.

·         The seeds can contaminate the crop during harvest, (paddy/straw) which may be carried from one farm to another, or by animals when they feed on the straw or may attach to their feet as the animals pass by Striga-infested areas or by machine tools during land preparation. Striga seeds are also easily dispersed by wind and water.

Control:

·         Some of the measures recommended for the control of Striga in rice include the use of Striga-free seeds, proper cleaning of farm tools especially after working on infested fields, proper fertilization (use of organic manure and inorganic fertilizer), crop rotation especially with soybean and groundnut, and intercropping as well as timely weeding.

·         Rice farms should be weeded before Striga produces seeds to reduce the Striga seeds in the soil. A combination of the control measures often referred to as the integrated Striga control approach is recommended and is more effective than the individual control measures.

CROP MATURITY, HARVEST AND STORAGE

·         Rice is ready for harvesting when the grains are hard and are turning yellow/brown (about 30–45 days after flowering).

·         Harvest when 80–85% of the grains have turned straw colour to avoid shattering, this is usually about 4-5 weeks after at least 50% flowering.

·         Cut the rice stems with a sickle at about 15-20cm above the ground to permit hand threshing. Tie the panicles in bundles.

·         Then place the tied-up bundles of harvested rice crop in heaps for drying before threshing 80 percent of the paddy.

       Matured rice fields ready for harvest in picture above

PEST AND DISEASES MANAGEMENT

Pest Management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

-          is the integration of available pest control tactics to maintain the pest numbers below economic threshold levels with an aim of least or no hazards to the environment.

-          IPM is the alternative to pest control. Normal pest control activity was aimed at eradication of pests by use of chemical (synthetic) pesticides. However, the overuse and misuse of chemical pesticides have led to development of a series of negative ecological consequences.

Cultural and mechanical methods

Culture control Methods include

-          Crop residue management;

-          Use of healthy seeds;

-          Use of resistant/tolerant varieties;

-          Adjustment of sowing time;

-          Crop rotation;

-          Intercropping, strip cropping; border cropping;

-          Crop sanitation;

-          Efficient fertilizer management;

-          Efficient water management;

-          Removal of affected plant parts;

-          Use of traps/poison bait.

Termites

Termites Control

Preventive Method

-          Destroy all dead woods and plant residues by burning. 

-          Locate termite mounds in surrounding bush and destroy.

Chemical Method

-          Apply Aldrex 40 or Aldrin (2.5%) dust or Basudin 10G (3kg ha^-1) or Birlane or Furadan (3kg ha^-1) treatment to control termite.

Army Worm and Stem Borer

Army Worm and Stem Borer Control

-          Watch the rice crop closely for dead hearts during early vegetative growth.

-          Apply Vetox 85 (5 litres ha^-1) or Basudin 10G (3kg ha^-1) or Viral 10G (3kg ha^-1) or Furadan 3G (3kg ha^-1) or Birlane for control of stem borer and army worms.  

-          Apply DecisTM at 1 liter a.i/ha in 500 litres of water to control rice bugs which suck the sap after flowering.

-          Apply FuradanTM (Carbofuran) at 1 kg/ha or MiralTM (Isazofos) at 0.75 kg a.i/ha to control African rice gall midge 20–30 days after transplanting as symptoms are seen on the field.

Rodents Control

-          Keep 2 to 3 metre border round the field free from grass, weed and burn thrash to control rodents.

-          Build bamboo or palm frond fence (if possible), around the field immediately after planting. Create openings at short intervals and place traps in the openings.

Birds Control

-          Use scaring devices to control birds.

-          Employ people to drive birds away from farms between 6am to 7pm first two weeks after planting and from heading to harvesting. 

Disease Management

Integrated Disease Management (IDM)

Is the managing of plant disease severity below the economic threshold level following cost-effective, viable and easy operational procedures.

The various methods used for IDM in rice include;

-          Use of resistant/tolerant varieties;

-          Use clean and healthy seeds;

-          Destruction of alternative host plants;

-          Selection of suitable land;

-          Seed/seedling treatment;

-          Proper land preparation;

-          timely planting;

-          Appropriate plant population;

-          Crop rotation with non-host crops;

-          Burning of stubbles;

-          Judicious fertilizer application.

-          Proffer weeding,

-          regular inspection of the crop for disease incidence and removing and destruction of diseased plants.

Bacterial Leaf Blight

Causal organism: Xanthomonas campestris pv. oryzae,

Symptoms of Bacterial Leaf Blight

-          Bacterial leaf blight is a typical vascular disease and has three distinct phases of symptoms. viz., leaf blight phase, kresek phase and pale-yellow leaf phase.

-          Symptoms of the disease appear from the tip or edges of leaves as yellow, water soaked, undulate lesions, parallel to' the veins, later turning to straw yellow.

-          Often amber coloured bead-like bacterial exudates are present on lesions. In systemic infection, seedlings wilt and die.

-          Grains get partially filled or become chaffy. Rain splashes and wind aid in dissemination of the bacterium. Field to field irrigation also aids in the spread of the pathogen.

Control of Bacterial Leaf Blight:

The control measures for Bacterial Leaf Blight are:

              -    Growing resistant varieties

              -   Split application of nitrogen fertilizer

Bacterial leaf streak

Causal organism: Xanthomonas oryzae pv. Oryzicola

Symptoms of Bacterial leaf streak

-          This is a bacterial foliar disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. Oryzicola, the disease first starts on the leaves as small water-soaked to translucent interveinal streaks of 1-10 cm long.

-          They elongate parallel to the veins and turn yellowish brown, which often coalesce to form large blotchy lesions covering the entire leaf Surface. Minute, yellowish orange beads of bacterial exudates appearing all along the lesions is a characteristic feature of this disease.

Control of Bacterial leaf streak:

To eradicate the disease, following steps should be taken  

-          Procure of seeds from authentic source to minimize the seed borne inoculums.  

-          Soaking of the seeds in 0.025% Streptocycline and hot water treatment at 52°c for 30 minutes.

-          Use of resistant varieties.

A well-drained sandy loam soil is suitable for rainfed cowpea cultivation, while inland depressions or areas along lake shores can be utilized for dry season cowpea crops using residual moisture, but cowpea cannot tolerate excessively wet conditions or waterlogging and should not be grown on poorly drained soil.

For cowpea cultivation in the Nigerian Sudan savannah region, the well-drained sandy loam soils typical of this area are ideal for rainfed production, while the inland valleys and depressions found in the landscape can be utilized for dry season cowpea crops by taking advantage of residual moisture, but the crop should not be grown in poorly drained areas or waterlogged soils which are unsuitable as cowpea cannot tolerate excessively wet conditions.

Remove any shrubs and stubble from the site. Alternatively, apply a herbicide like Glyphosate (Round-up) to the field at a rate of 4 liters per hectare, which is approximately 2 1/3 small milk tins (157 ml) mixed in a 15-liter sprayer or 3 milk tins in a 20-liter knapsack sprayer. Allow at least 10 days for the emerged weeds to be killed by the herbicide. Manual land preparation using a hoe is also an option. The soil should be cultivated deeply enough to ensure there are no barriers, such as a hardpan, that would impede the penetration of the cowpea's taproot. If using a tractor, plow and harrow the field to achieve suitable soil tilth for good root growth. Proper land preparation ensures good germination and reduces weed infestation. After preparation, you can make ridges if desired. However, for more fragile and erosion-prone soils, adopt minimum or zero tillage practices.

Select seeds that are of good quality, without any damage, holes, or wrinkles. Well-stored seeds kept under optimal conditions will exhibit good germination rates. Farmers are advised to consult with the nearest Agricultural Officer, extension worker, or the nearest office of the State Agricultural Development Project, River Basin Development Authority, National Seeds Service, or seed companies to obtain information about the most suitable cowpea variety for their area, as well as to source viable and high-quality cowpea seeds.

Treat the cowpea seeds with Apron XL® at a rate of 10 grams per 4-5 kilograms of seeds (one sachet), which will enhance good germination and protect the seedlings from fungal infections immediately after emergence.

The planting date significantly impacts cowpea seed yield and quality. It also influences the necessity and timing of insecticide applications for controlling insect pests. High yields of good quality cowpea seeds are obtained when the crop is planted in a manner that allows it to mature during dry weather conditions. In Northern Nigeria, the reproductive development of cowpea is primarily determined by the plant's response to photoperiod. Some cowpea genotypes are photoperiod-sensitive, while others are photoperiod-insensitive. Photoperiod, which is determined by day length, is a critical factor in determining the appropriate planting time for cowpea in this region.

For the Sahel agroecological zone, where rains commence in May and last from June to August, early or medium maturity cowpea varieties with appropriate growth habits should be planted between June 14th and June 28th. In the Sudan savanna region, where rains start in June and continue through September, the recommended planting period for cowpea is from June 25th to July 24th. The Northern Guinea savanna zone receives rainfall from July to October, making the ideal planting window for early or medium maturity cowpea cultivars from July 25th to August 8th. In the Southern Guinea savanna area, where the rainy season spans August to November, early, medium, or late maturing cowpea varieties can be planted between August 25th and August 30th to align with the rainfall patterns.

Annual grasses and some broadleaf weeds can be controlled by a pre-sowing application of herbicide. Row crop cultivation may be necessary with cowpeas, depending on the weed pressure, soil conditions, and rainfall. Preplant tillage can assist greatly in reducing early weed pressure, and the use of cover crops.

Manual control

Weed cowpea twice with hoe, first at 2 weeks after planting and secondly at 4–5 weeks later to ensure a clean field. A third weeding just before flowering may be necessary, depending on the field situation or the presence of a perennial weed such as Imperata cylindrica.

Chemical control

Chemical weed control involves the use of herbicides

Apply a mixture Glufosinate ammonium (150−550 ml) and Pendimethalin, Stomp, Dual Gold or Butachlor (50–450 ml) depending on product formulation, in a tank of 15 or 20liters capacity and applied immediately after planting or the following day. Glufosinate ammonium controls emerged grasses and broadleaf weeds; Pendimethalin, Butachlor, or Stomp prevents weed seeds from germinating.

**Pre-flowering Pests**
- Aphids (Aphis craccivora) and Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci)
  - Cause: These sap-sucking insects infest cowpea plants.
  - Symptoms: They produce honeydew on the plant, covering it and blocking sunlight. Infested plants may wilt, turn yellow, become stunted, or die when infestations are severe or prolonged.
  - Control: Use insecticidal soaps, neem-based pesticides, or other approved insecticides.

**Flowering Pests**
- Thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti) and Maruca (Maruca vitrata)
  - Cause: These pests attack the flowers.
  - Symptoms: Flowers fall prematurely without forming any pods.
  - Control: Apply insecticides during flowering to protect the blooms.

**Post-flowering Pests**
- Maruca Pod Borer (Maruca vitrata)
  - Cause: The larvae bore into buds, flowers, and pods.
  - Symptoms: Holes on buds, flowers, and pods from feeding damage.
  - Control: Use integrated pest management strategies like pheromone traps, Bt products, and pesticides.

- Pod-sucking Bugs (Anoplocnemis curvipes, Riptortus spp., Nezara viridula, Acantomia sp.)
  - Cause: These bugs suck sap from green pods.
  - Symptoms: Shriveled and prematurely dried pods, resulting in seed loss.
  - Control: Apply insecticides during the pod-filling stage to protect the crop.

**Diseases**
- Fungal, bacterial, and viral diseases can also affect cowpea. Proper crop rotation, using disease-resistant varieties, and following recommended cultural practices can help manage diseases.

Fusarium Wilt
- Cause: Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. tracheiphilum (Fot)
- Symptoms: Reduced plant growth, leaf chlorosis, wilting, and vascular discoloration
- Control: Use resistant cowpea varieties

Cercospora Leaf Spot (CLS)  
- Cause: Cercospora canescens, Pseudocercospora cruenta
- Symptoms: Severe defoliation, necrotic leaf spots, black fungal mats on leaf undersides
- Control: Grow resistant varieties

Bacterial Blight
- Cause: Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. vignicola 
- Symptoms: Water-soaked, translucent leaf spots
- Control: Cultural practices, intercropping, resistant varieties, chemical sprays

Scab Disease
- Cause: Sphaceloma sp.
- Symptoms: Leaf spots, cupped lesions along veins, oval stem lesions, egg-shaped white stem spots, pitted pod lesions
- Control: Seed treatment with mancozeb, resistant varieties

Virus Diseases (vectored by insects)
- Symptoms: Mosaic, mottling, leaf thickening, wrinkling, distortion, size reduction, stunting
- Control: Resistant varieties, vector control with insecticides, rogueing symptomatic plants

Additionally, cowpea is susceptible to nematodes, so it should not be planted consecutively on the same land. Crop rotation and using nematode-resistant varieties can help manage nematode issues.

**Pre-flowering Pests**
- Aphids (Aphis craccivora) and Whiteflies (Bemisia tabaci)
  - Cause: These sap-sucking insects infest cowpea plants.
  - Symptoms: They produce honeydew on the plant, covering it and blocking sunlight. Infested plants may wilt, turn yellow, become stunted, or die when infestations are severe or prolonged.
  - Control: Use insecticidal soaps, neem-based pesticides, or other approved insecticides.

**Flowering Pests**
- Thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti) and Maruca (Maruca vitrata)
  - Cause: These pests attack the flowers.
  - Symptoms: Flowers fall prematurely without forming any pods.
  - Control: Apply insecticides during flowering to protect the blooms.

**Post-flowering Pests**
- Maruca Pod Borer (Maruca vitrata)
  - Cause: The larvae bore into buds, flowers, and pods.
  - Symptoms: Holes on buds, flowers, and pods from feeding damage.
  - Control: Use integrated pest management strategies like pheromone traps, Bt products, and pesticides.

Pod-sucking Bugs (Anoplocnemis curvipes, Riptortus spp., Nezara viridula, Acantomia sp.)
  - Cause: These bugs suck sap from green pods.
  - Symptoms: Shriveled and prematurely dried pods, resulting in seed loss.
  - Control: Apply insecticides during the pod-filling stage to protect the crop.

Proper crop rotation, using disease-resistant varieties, and following recommended cultural practices can help manage diseases.

Harvest maturity
Cowpeas vary in growth habit from erect or semi-erect types with short (<100 days) growth duration, grown mostly for grain, to longer (>120 days) duration in semi-erect to trailing plants which are normally grown primarily for forage. At maturity, leaves will dry down but may not drop off completely. They need to be harvested when seed moisture content is 14 to 18 %, depending on the consumer’s requirement. In cowpeas grown for vegetable purposes, the leaves are picked 4 weeks after planting, and this continues until the plants start to flower.

Harvesting methods
Cowpea can be harvested using a harvester or by hand. The upright cultivars are easy to harvest by machine. Cowpea grown as a dried seed product can be direct combined, using a platform head or a row crop head. Adjustments to combine settings and possibly sieve sizes should be made for the cowpea seed. Because the pods are relatively long, some will touch the ground or be close to it, making it important to run the grain table close to the ground. In the case of cowpeas grown for vegetable purposes, young leaves are mainly picked by hand, older leaves accumulate dust or get spattered with mud from raindrops if
not harvested. Harvesting of cowpea in most cases should coincide with the on-set of dry season when the dry pods can remain about a week awaiting harvesting without spoilage. However, to avoid field weathering or shattering, dry pods should not be left in the field longer than 2 weeks after full pod maturity. Harvesting can be carried out manually (hand harvesting) or by using a combine harvester in the case of large-scale production.

Post-harvest handling
1. SORTING
Seed quality is important, so care in harvest and post-harvest handling is important to avoid cracked or split seed as such seeds which were allowed to dry on plant are harvested to ensure full maturity. Sorting is done to separate the broken seeds from the full seeds. Some buyers will want the seed cleaned and bagged, while others will take the grain in bulk form and clean it themselves.
2. POST-HARVEST HANDLING
The leaves are dried to store for the dry season. Usually, they are first steamed or boded, but not in all places. Sun-drying requires 1 to 3 days; storage for up to a year is possible because dried cooked leaves are not damaged to the same extent as by insects as dried seeds. Excessive losses of P-carotene, vitamin C, and the amino acid lysine often occur in sun-dried leaves, however, these can be reduced by minimal cooking followed by drying in the shade.
3. GRADING
Usually the youngest leaves or tender shoots in the distinctive colour phase of new growth are gathered. Young leaves are tender, usually higher in protein, and, lacking insect damage, often look more appealing. Older leaves accumulate dust or get spattered with mud from raindrops, while younger leaves would not need so much washing.
4. PACKING
Some buyers will want the seed cleaned and bagged, while others will take the grain in bulk form and clean it themselves. Packaged in sacks and put into electrical dryers or spread on a concrete slab in the case of sun drying in order to reduce the moisture content to about 12 %.
5. STORAGE
Insect pests in particular can be devastating to cowpea during storage. There are storage insects that cause damage to the seed; it is therefore important to store seed in a protected place. A serious insect pest during storage is the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus, (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). The rising popularity of organic produce lines has created interest in nonchemical disinfestation treatments as the use of chemicals in controlling these insects is becoming a problem.

The storage life of cowpea depends on its moisture content before storage. The lower the moisture content, the better the quality of seeds in storage. In developed countries; one alternative is the use of cold storage. An exposure to -18^oC during 6 to 24 hours can reduce pest numbers by more than 99 %. The grain can be stored short term at around 12 % moisture or less, with 8 to 9% recommended for long-term storage. Cowpea leaves are dried to store them for the dry season. Sun-dried leaves may store for up to a year because dried, cooked leaves are not damaged as much by insects as dried seeds.

·         A flat or moderately sloppy land with good drainage,

·         Avoid deep sandy or extremely gravel soil or waterlogged soils.

Avoid heavy texture soil on the surface of soil because of potential problems classified with crusting and poor seedling emergence.

·         Plough and harrow the soil.

·         Manually, stump and clear rubbish away from the site completely.

·         Ridging is not necessary.

·         Selected soybean varieties grown in Nigeria are presented in Table 1. Choose a variety suited to your agro ecological zone.

·          Soybean variety selection should be based on maturity, yield potential, lodging, drought tolerance, and resistance to pests and diseases.

The maturity period should be the first consideration when choosing a variety suited to your geographical zone. Consider varieties that are earlier maturing rather than late maturing in areas with low rainfall. Although later maturity increases the yield potential, it is risky to grow late-maturing varieties in drier environments because of late-season drought.

v  Test seeds for germination before planting.

v  The germination rate should be 85% or more to obtain a good stand. To conduct a quick seed germination test, select 400 seeds randomly and sow 100 seeds each in four wooden or plastic boxes or a prepared seedbed.

v  Sow one seed/hole at a distance of 5cm or two seeds/hole at a distance of 10cm between the seeds. Soak cloth- or paper-lined germination boxes or the seedbed well with water before sowing and provide water every morning and evening.

Start counting the seedlings 5 days after sowing and complete the counting within 10 days. A total count of 320 germinated seeds or more indicates a germination rate of 80% and above. When the percentage of germination is 80% or less, the seed rate has to be increased accordingly to achieve 100% germination.

v  Soybean produces well over a wide range of planting dates, if moisture is available.

v  Do not plant too early because a prolonged dry spell after planting may result in permanent wilting of the crop and the need for replanting.

Late planting, on the other hand, may expose the crop to attack by some late season pests and also deprive the crop of sufficient moisture if the rains stop early. Plant soybean as soon as the rains are well established.

v  About 50–70 kg (20–28 standard mudus) are required to obtain a population of 400,000 plants/ha under the spacing of 5cm X 50cm intra and inter rows for soybean varieties.

v   Since soybean seed size varies among varieties, it is essential to consider planting in terms of seeds/unit area. It is not uncommon to see sizes ranging from 12.6 to 18.9 g/100 seeds.

Treat seeds with fungicides, such as Captan, Apron Plus, or Thiram, at the rate of 1 sachet/8 kg of seeds before planting for protection against soil borne fungal diseases.

v  Sow soybean by hand, planter, or by drilling. Plant 3 to 4 seeds/hole at a spacing of 75 cm between rows and 10 cm between stands.

v  Alternatively, drill seeds at 50–75 cm between rows and 5 cm within rows. For the early maturing varieties, a spacing of 50 cm between rows and 5–10 cm within rows is recommended because they respond better to narrow spacing than the late-maturing varieties.

Do not sow seeds more than 2–5 cm deep. Deeper planting may result in loss of vigor or failure of seedlings to emerge.

·         A good fertilizer recommendation for soybean production depends on a good soil test. Under normal conditions, soybean as a legume should provide itself with nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation.

·         Until nodulation occurs, the soybean plant depends on soil nitrogen for growth. Phosphorus is often the most deficient nutrient, therefore, apply optimum phosphorous fertilizer for good yield.

·         Apply phosphorus at the rate of 30kg p/ha in the form of single super phosphate fertilizer (SUPA) (3 × 50kg bags) in addition to 2½ × 50kg bags of compound fertilizer NPK 15:15:15.

Nitrogen and potassium fertilizers are needed only when there are obvious deficiencies. Incorporate the fertilizer into the soil at land preparation during harrowing and levelling the field.

·         A good fertilizer recommendation for soybean production depends on a good soil test. Under normal conditions, soybean as a legume should provide itself with nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation.

·         Until nodulation occurs, the soybean plant depends on soil nitrogen for growth. Phosphorus is often the most deficient nutrient, therefore, apply optimum phosphorous fertilizer for good yield.

·         Apply phosphorus at the rate of 30kg p/ha in the form of single super phosphate fertilizer (SUPA) (3 × 50kg bags) in addition to 2½ × 50kg bags of compound fertilizer NPK 15:15:15.

·         Nitrogen and potassium fertilizers are needed only when there are obvious deficiencies. Incorporate the fertilizer into the soil at land preparation during harrowing and levelling the field. Use the recommendations (Table 3) as a guide for fertilizing your soybean crop.

·         Soil fertility enhancement

v  Soybean improves soil fertility and fixes nitrogen in the soil for the succeeding maize.

v  When grown in rotation with maize, it serves as a catch crop in controlling Striga hermonthica, a parasitic weed that attacks maize, by causing suicidal germination of Striga.

v  Recommended fertilizer rates (kg/ha) Materials

20 kg N

40 kg P2O5

20 kg K2O

2½ × 50 kg bags of NPK (15-15-15)

Plus 3 × 50 kg bags of SSP (SUPA)

·         Soybeans requires relatively less water compared to maize and rice

·         It requires an annual rainfall of 500mm-600mm

v  Perennial and most annual weeds are a problem in soybean in their early growth stages. A properly timed weed control program can minimize the effects of weeds.

v  Weed control in soybean could be manual, chemical or both.

·         Manual weed control: Carry out the first weeding at 2 weeks after planting and the second at 5–weeks after planting. Avoid weeding immediately after rainfall as this would lead to transplanting the weeds. Poor hoe weeding or delay in weeding could cause significant reductions in soybean yields.

Chemical weed control: Herbicides, if used properly, are safe and effective in controlling weeds in soybean. The choice of herbicide, however, depends on the predominant weed species and the availability of the herbicide. Herbicides are available for pre-emergence or post-emergence weed control in soybean. If herbicide is applied at planting, one weeding may be required 5–6 weeks after planting.

·         Insect pests and their control

v  Several different insects occur in soybean fields but few are normally of any economic importance, and the species that cause damage are usually not abundant enough to warrant control measures.

v  In the vegetative stage, the crop is very tolerant of caterpillars but very susceptible to silver leaf whitefly attack.

·         Diseases and their control

v  Soybean diseases normally result in major yield losses in Nigeria. Some of the common diseases caused by fungi, bacteria, and viruses are mentioned below.

Ø  Fungal and bacterial diseases

Rust: Asian soybean rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi, is one of the most important foliar diseases in Nigeria.

·         The infected leaves have small tan to dark brown or reddish brown lesions on which small raised pustules (or‘bumps’) occur on the lower surface of the leaves (Fig. 5b). Pustules produce a large number of spores.

·         Brown or rust-colored powder falls when severely infected leaves are tapped over a white paper or cloth. Severe infection leads to premature defoliation and yield losses up to 80%. The disease is of great economic importance in the derived savanna and southern Guinea savanna zones where rainfall and humidity are high.

·         Bacterial pustule: The disease is caused by Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. glycines. Symptoms appear as specks to large, irregular spots with raised light-colored pustules in the elevated centers of the spots.

·         Soybean rust. The elevated pustules sometimes have cracks in them. Later lesions join together and the dead areas tear away to give a ragged appearance to the leaves. Symptoms of rust and bacterial pustule sometimes appear similar.

·         Phytophthora seedling blight and root and stem rot: Phytophthora sojae causes seedling blight, and root and stem rot. Young seedlings that appear to be established turn off-color to yellow, wilt, and die. The stems of these plants may show a brown discoloration that begins at the soil line and extends up the stem. The brown, dead leaves remain attached to the plant, and the dead seedlings are obvious symptoms of the disease in the field.

·         Frogeye leaf spot: The fungus Cercospora sojina that survives in infected soybean residue and seeds causes this disease.

Ø  Virus diseases

·         Soybean is susceptible to several viruses transmitted by aphids, beetles and whiteflies prevailing in Nigeria.

·         Most of the virus infection results in foliar symptoms such as mosaic and mottling, thickening/brittling of older leaves, puckering, leaf distortion, severe reduction in leaf size, and stunting of plants.

·         Mixed infection with more than one virus is common under field conditions. Features of the three most common virus diseases on soybean in Nigeria are presented here.

Ø  Mosaic disease: Cowpea mild mottle virus (CPMMV; genus Carlavirus, family Flexiviridae) transmitted by whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Gennidius) is the most prevalent virus associated with soybean mosaic disease in Nigeria.

Ø  Leaf curling, green vein banding, and stunting. Most severe symptoms are observed in plants infected at early stages of growth (preflowering) and significant reduction in pods.

v  Yellow mosaic disease: It is caused by whitefly (B. tabaci)-transmitted different viruses belonging to the genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae.

v  Soybean yellow mosaic virus was found to be the most prevalent virus associated with this disease.

v  Soybean mottle mosaic virus, which also causes similar symptoms, was found to be less frequent in the fields. Virus-infected plants produce bright yellow mosaic or specks, and develop into large blotches on the leaf lamina, but this infection does not result in leaf distortion or reduction in lamina size. Mixed infection of these two begomoviruses and CPMMV are common in the fields and such infection results in bright yellow mosaic symptoms and leaf puckering.

·         Dwarf disease: The causal virus responsible for soybean dwarfing disease is not known. This disease occurs in low frequency in the fields. Leaves and shoots of the infected plants are severely stunted with severe reduction in leaf lamina. Infected plants do not produce any pods.

v  Soybean matures within 3–4 months after planting and requires timely harvesting to check excessive yield losses. At maturity, the pod is straw colored.

v  It is recommended that soybean be harvested when about 85% of the pods have turned brown for a non-shattering variety but 80% for shattering varieties.

v  Alternatively, the crop can be harvested when the seeds are at the hard-dough stage, when the seed moisture content is between 14 and 16%. Newer varieties are resistant to shattering but losses in yield may occur from other causes if harvesting is delayed.

v  Harvesting can be done with a cutlass, a hoe, or sickles. Cut the mature plants at ground level. Stack them loosely on tarpaulin and allow them to dry in the open for 2 weeks before threshing.

v   Do not harvest by hand pulling because this may remove the nutrient that the soybean has added to the soil.

The seed should be stored at moisture content of 10-12% or less.

(i)                 Nitrogen Deficiency: Leaves become pale green with a yellowish tinge; later the entire leaves become distinctly yellow; deficiency symptom usually appears first on leaves at the base of plant

(ii)               Phosphorus Deficiency: Plants are delayed in blooming and in maturity; leaves show brown spots after flowering; root development is poor leaf blades are tilted upwards

(iii)             Potassium Deficiency: Irregular yellow mottling around edges of leaflets particularly in the lower parts of the plant; chlorotic spots merge to form continuous yellow borders around the tips and along the sides of leaves; necrosis of chlorotic areas follows with a downward cupping of the leaf edges; dead tissues then fall out; giving the leaflets a ragged appearance.

Tomato requires a Temperature of 15-25 degrees Celsius, It also requires a rainfall of 500-1200mm per annum and it grows best in well-structured soil but it performs best on Sandy loam to loamy soil with a pH of 6.0-6.5. 

·         Treat seeds before planting using recommended dressing chemicals to protect them against soil-borne pests, diseases, and animal attacks before germination.

Recommended chemicals for treating seeds include;

-          Use of chemicals e.g. Marshal 2 % dust (10 g to treat 2 to 5 kg seed)

-          Treatment of seed with micronutrient fertilizer.

·         Plant tomato seeds on a well-prepared seedbed or plastic trays filled with topsoil mixed with animal manure.

·          Sow on a row when planting on a seedbed at a spacing of 5cm apart, and cover thinly with fine soil.

·         Mulching is necessary, cover with palm fronds or elephant grass to reduce the rate of evaporation / water loss from the soil.

·         Water the beds or trays early in the morning and late in the evening or when necessary.

·         Weeding should be carried out regularly.

·         Seeds will germinate 3-5 days after sowing depending on the soil temperature. Harden seedlings one week before transplanting through the gradual removal of shade of covered plants.

·         Seedlings are ready for transplanting between 3 to 4 weeks after sowing.

ADVANTAGES OF NURSERY PRACTICES

·         Affords easy management of the tender seedlings.

·         Timely and careful plant protection measures.

·          Enables the provision of the most favorable growth medium.

·          Economy of land and seed.

·          Gives more time for field operation.

Land to be used should be cleared at least four weeks before planting especially if it is virgin land. Other operations include stumping, plowing, and harrowing. The field should be harrowed once and bedded where necessary. Weeding can be done at two-week intervals to give room for weed seeds to germinate between each operation.

Depending on the location: Planting can be done in September, October, and December with a spacing of 60 x 60 cm without staking and 50 x 30 cm with staking.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             

Transplant the seedling to the field 3 to 6 weeks after sowing. A week before transplanting, seedlings should be hardened by reducing the application of water, but 12-14 hours before they are taken out of the seedbed, they should be thoroughly watered again to avoid excessive damage to the roots. Seedlings of 15-25 cm tall with 3-5 true leaves are most suitable for transplanting. Transplanting should be done in the afternoon or on a cloudy day to reduce the transplanting shock.

Water the plants immediately once they have been transplanted. When removing the seedlings, keep a large clump of soil attached to the roots to prevent them from being damaged. Spacing between plants and rows depends on the cultivar growth habit, soil type, cropping system, and also whether the plants are to be supported by stakes or left on the ground. The common spacing is 50 cm between plants and 75 - 100 cm between rows. If the tomatoes are to be supported by sticks, then the distances between rows can be decreased to 20-40 cm. Make the holes for the plants deep enough so that the lowest leaves are at ground level. Press the soil firmly around the root, and water around the base of the plant to settle the soil.

After transplanting, mulch can be placed on the ground around the plants to protect them from heat during the first five days. Mulch is composed of plant remains (e.g., rice straw or sorghum straw) used to cover the soil to control weed growth, prevent erosion, and conserve water. Care should be taken not to wet the lower leaves, as this can stimulate the growth of mold. A more advanced method is to put plastic mulch on the beds and punch holes in the plastic before planting. The transplanted plants should be protected from heat during the first five days, e.g., by covering them with large leaves. The seedlings are arranged on prepared beds 50cm x 75cm within and between rows respectively. This gives a plant population of 26,667 plants per hectare.

It is advantageous that the soil be weed free from planting to early fruit set. If weeding is not done in time, the weeds will serve as alternate hosts of plant diseases, and parasitize the root systems thereby affecting the yield quantity and quality.

·         Weed two or more times before harvesting is completed.

·         Weeding3-5 weeks after transplanting is desirable.

·         Increase in plant density also helps to control weed by casting a sense shade on the undergrowth

·         Alternatively, apply Metribuzin (herbicide) at the rate of 1.0 – 1.5 kg/ha two days before transplanting for effective weed control.

Tomato is not resistant to drought. Yields decrease considerably after short periods of water deficiency. It is important to water the plants regularly, especially during flowering and fruit formation. The amount of water that is needed depends on the type of soil and the weather (amount of rain, humidity, and temperature). It is especially important to water regularly (e.g., 3 times a week) on sandy soils. Under good circumstances once a week should be enough.

Tomato seedlings are usually staked at the peak of the rainy season and this is done using canes that are at least 1m high, preferably bamboo. Advantages of staking include:

·         Exposing fruit to light and air circulation

·         Reducing the alternate heating and cooling of the fruit by the soil which enhances the rate of fruit damage.

·         Reducing the incidence of diseases and pests

·         Providing good quality clean fruits

 Diseases:

 MATURITY, HARVEST AND STORAGE - TYLKA
· Fruits are ready for harvesting 12-18 weeks after sowing
· Fruits are recommended for harvesting when half ripe or with a tint of color change to
ensure firmness and prevent damage during transportation.
· Tomato fruits for processing must however be fully ripe before it is harvested.
· Harvest at least once a week. If tomato is cultivated under irrigation, good agricultural
practices are ensured especially in the dry season. Yields of between 20-30ha could be
obtained.
· Studies have shown that under crop management, the tomato crop can be on the field for
17-23 weeks before harvesting is terminated.

Fruits are ready for harvesting half-ripe or with a tint of color change to ensure firmness and prevent damage during transportation. Tomato fruits for processing must however be fully ripe before its harvested.

·     Maize is more extensively distributed globally than any other cereal crop because it adapts to a wide range of climates.

·    It needs a lot of sunshine and warmth and most cultivars have little sensitivity to photo period. The best maize regions are those which receives an annual precipitation of between 600-1000mm, although it is also successfully grown under irrigation, after the cold harmattan period (winter period) is over.

·      It does not tolerate low temperature below 13^oC which may occur during the dry harmattan period, in which germination is low. During harmattan periods, fresh maize cobs are in great demand and are often scarce because supply is low.

·     Sellers of all soil fertility improvement and weather apparatus constitute stakeholders related to soils and climate.

·      The ideal soil for maize is a deep, medium-textured, fertile soil with a high water holding capacity in the pH range of 5.5-8.0.

·       Maize is more extensively distributed globally than any other cereal crop because it adapts to a wide range of climates.

·    It needs a lot of sunshine and warmth and most cultivars have little sensitivity to photo period. The best maize regions are those which receives an annual precipitation of between 600-1000mm, although it is also successfully grown under irrigation, after the cold harmattan period (winter period) is over.

·      It does not tolerate low temperature below 13^oC which may occur during the dry harmattan period, in which germination is low. During harmattan periods, fresh maize cobs are in great demand and are often scarce because supply is low.

·    Sellers of all soil fertility improvement and weather apparatus constitute stakeholders related to soils and climate.

·       The ideal soil for maize is a deep, medium-textured, fertile soil with a high water holding capacity in the pH range of 5.5-8.0.

·       Nitrogen Deficiency: Leaves yellow; older leaves dying at tips and progressively along mid-vein; stalks slender; stunting.

·       Phosphorus Deficiency: Leaves turn purplish during early growth; slow maturity; irregular ear formation and stunting.

·       Potassium Deficiency:    Yellow or yellowish-green streaks especially on lower leaves, followed by marginal scorch; short inter-node; weak plants easily lodged.

·       Magnesium Deficiency: A general loss of green colour which starts in the bottom leaves and later moves up the stalk. The leaf vein remains green. Stalks are weak with long branched roots. Definite and sharply defined series of yellowish-green, light yellow, or even white streaks throughout the entire leaf. Leaves curve upward along the margins.

·       Sulphur Deficiency: Young leaves turn light green with even lighter veins. Stalks are short, slender, and yellow in colour. Growth is slow and plants are stunted.

·       Zinc Deficiency: Pale yellow leaf base, light yellow streak of the leaf blade between the veins, stunting, and delayed maturity.

·       Boron Deficiency: Boron causes one-sided shriveling of kernels. In severe cases, a lack of seeds may occur.

·       In the southern parts of the country where vegetation cover is fairly dense, land clearing should be carried out well ahead of the rains.

·     Make ridges as soon as the rains start. Although the crop benefits from the deep cultivation, maize yields are not reduced when zero tillage is adopted.

·   For high grain yield, sow maize in well prepared ridges of 75cm apart. Because the soils in the savannas are loose, animal drawn implements can be used for preparing ridges or by hand hoe and tractor mounted tillage equipment.

Early maturing, high yielding, and drought tolerance. It has a potential yield of 5.2t/ha

This is a white early maturity, stable, and high grain yield maize variety. It is tolerant to drought and Striga hermonthica with a potential yield of 7.8t/h.

·       Treat maize seeds before planting using recommended dressing chemicals in order to protect them against soil borne pests, diseases and bird attack before and after germination.

·       Recommended chemicals for treating seeds include Marshal 2% dust, Apron Star 50DS, All-star, Dress force, Seed plus and others. Use 10g to treat between 2 and 5kg of seed depending on the brand of seed dressing chemical available.

     Wash your hands thoroughly, with soap and water after treating the seeds and after planting treated seeds. Read the label of all agrochemical products before using the products.

Plant at spacing of 75cm x 50cm when two plants per stand or 75 x 25cm when one plant per stand is adopted.

Seed rate

·       About 15 to 20kg of maize seeds are required to plant a hectare which is about 2½acre. Plant 3 seeds per hole, later thinned to two plants per stand at about 1-2 weeks alter germination.

·        When maize is grown as an inter-crop, the spacing should be made wider than for sole cropped maize.

·       The practice of alternating rows of maize with other crops is recommended, as this will allow the adoption of recommended packages for each crop.

Plant at spacing of 75cm x 50cm when two plants per stand or 75 x 25cm when one plant per stand is adopted.

Seed rate

·      About 15 to 20kg of maize seeds are required to plant a hectare which is about 2½acre. Plant 3 seeds per hole, later thinned to two plants per stand at about 1-2 weeks alter germination.

·        When maize is grown as an inter-crop, the spacing should be made wider than for sole cropped maize.

·      The practice of alternating rows of maize with other crops is recommended, as this will allow the adoption of recommended packages for each crop.

Soil management

v  It is important to return crop residues of the previous year into soil where maize is to be planted. Maize do not require waterlogged sites. The sites and the soil should be well drained.

Fertilizer requirements

·       Maize has a high demand for nitrogen and this is often the limiting nutrients in maize production. Thus, maize should be fertilized adequately especially the hybrids to enable them reach their fullest expression.

·       The fertilizer nutrients recommended for maize is 100kg N, 50kg of single super phosphate (SUPA) and 50kg K2O per hectare in the Sudan ecology (Kano, Katsina, Bauchi, Zamfara, Gombe States) and 120kg N, 60kg P, and 60kg of k in the Northern Guinea Savanna (Kaduna, Niger, Adamawa States).

·  The recommended N-fertilizer rate should be applied in two split applications.

·      First dose is applied at planting or within the first week of planting (that is 50:50:50) using about 6 bags of NPK 15- 15-15 while the 2nd dose of 50kg N (about two bags of urea) should be applied between 4 and 5 weeks after planting in the Southern and Northern Guineas Savannah zones.

·       But between 3 and 4 weeks after planting in the Sudan to extra early maize varieties.

·      For the Sahel, Sudan and Northern Guinea Savanna, in particular, basal N should be dibbled along a 5cm deep groove about 8cm away from the row of plants at 3 WAP and cover with soil. P and K are applied in furrows as single sources or compounded to NPK fertilizers before splitting.

·    All fertilizers should be buried during application. Weed the maize farm again before the application of the second fertilizer dose.

Soil management

v  It is important to return crop residues of the previous year into soil where maize is to be planted. Maize do not require waterlogged sites. The sites and the soil should be well drained.

Fertilizer requirements

·      Maize has a high demand for nitrogen and this is often the limiting nutrients in maize production. Thus, maize should be fertilized adequately especially the hybrids to enable them reach their fullest expression.

·     The fertilizer nutrients recommended for maize is 100kg N, 50kg of single super phosphate (SUPA) and 50kg K2O per hectare in the Sudan ecology (Kano, Katsina, Bauchi, Zamfara, Gombe States) and 120kg N, 60kg P, and 60kg of k in the Northern Guinea Savanna (Kaduna, Niger, Adamawa States).

· The recommended N-fertilizer rate should be applied in two split applications.

·       First dose is applied at planting or within the first week of planting (that is 50:50:50) using about 6 bags of NPK 15- 15-15 while the 2nd dose of 50kg N (about two bags of urea) should be applied between 4 and 5 weeks after planting in the Southern and Northern Guineas Savannah zones.

·      But between 3 and 4 weeks after planting in the Sudan to extra early maize varieties.

·     For the Sahel, Sudan and Northern Guinea Savanna, in particular, basal N should be dibbled along a 5cm deep groove about 8cm away from the row of plants at 3 WAP and cover with soil. P and K are applied in furrows as single sources or compounded to NPK fertilizers before splitting.

·    All fertilizers should be buried during application. Weed the maize farm again before the application of the second fertilizer dose.

WATER MANAGEMENT

-    Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety

v  Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety.

v  Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety.

v  Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety.

v  Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety.

v  Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety.

v  Maize requires adequate water to increase yield.  Rainfall requirement ranges from 600mm-1000mm depending on the variety.

Manual weed control

·     Two manual weeding are recommended that should be conducted at 2 weeks after planting and at 4-5 weeks after planting.

Chemical weed control

·      Wherever economically feasible to do so, herbicides can be used to control weeds on a maize farm. It is important to note that the effectiveness of the herbicides is enhanced by very good land preparation.

·       The herbicide recommendation provided on Table 2 below is for both large scale and small scaled maize farmers.

Control of Striga in Maize

·       In many parts of savanna zones, Striga is a notorious parasitic weed of maize.

·       Under severe infestation, the maize seedlings are usually seriously attacked even before emergence of the Striga, with the maize seedlings looking yellowish, stunted, and wilting.

·       To effectively control Striga various methods need to be implemented in an integrated fashion. The control options that should be integrated include rotation with soybean, use of tolerant/ resistant varieties, application of the recommended fertilizer rate and other cultural practices.

Table 2:  Herbicide recommendation

v  Pests and diseases are not yet serious problems in maize except for Striga, stem borers termites and storage pests.

Stem borers

·   Stem borers (SB) attack on maize especially on second season crop in southern Nigeria is significant where downy mildew is also common.

·     A single spray with 100-120mls of Cypermethrin 10 EC or 80-100 mls of lamdacyhalothrin 2.5EC properly timed is adequate to control stem borers while adopting seed treatment helps to control downy mildew.

·       When maize is to be consumed fresh, harvesting should be conducted when the silk has turned brown (55 – 70 days after planting).

·       But when grains are needed, harvest as soon as grains are dry enough (80 – 110 days after planting depending on the variety).

·       In harvesting, the cobs can be broken by hand from the plant or the whole plant can be cut with a cutlass.

·     Where the entire plant is harvested, they are often stacked in the field to allow the grains to dry further.

·       In the humid zones, the crop can be dried in a traditional ventilated granary or crib.

(i)          Nitrogen Deficiency: Leaves yellow; older leaves dying at tips and progressively along mid-vein; stalks slender; stunting.

(ii)        Phosphorus Deficiency: Leaves turn purplish during early growth; slow maturity; irregular ear formation and stunting.

(iii)         Potassium Deficiency: Yellow or yellowish-green streaks especially on lower leaves, followed by marginal scorch; short inter-node; weak plants easily lodged.

(iv)      Magnesium Deficiency: A general loss of green colour which starts in the bottom leaves and later moves up the stalk. The leaf vein, remains green. Stalks are weak with long branched roots. Definite and sharply defined series of yellowish-green, light yellow or even white streak throughout entire leaf. Leaves curve upward along the margins.

(v)       Sulphur Deficiency: Young leaves turn light green with even lighter veins. Stalks are short, slender and yellow in colour. Growth is slow and plants are stunted.

(vi)         Zinc Deficiency: Pale yellow leaf base, light yellow streak of the leaf blade between the veins, stunting and delayed maturity.

(vii)       Boron Deficiency: Boron causes one-sided shriveling of kernels. In severe cases, lack of seeds may occur.

High protein content, non-shattering ability, high pod clearance, excellent for mechanization and large seeds.

·         Soybean growth is influenced by climate and soil characteristics. Soybean performs well in the southern and northern Guinea savannas of Nigeria where rainfall is more than 700 mm.

·         However, short-duration varieties can thrive in the much drier Sudan savanna when sown early and with an even distribution of rainfall throughout the growing period. The time for planting soybean depends upon temperature and day length.

·          Soybean is a short-day plant and flowers in response to shortening days. It can be grown on a wide range of soils with pH ranging from 4.5 to 8.5. Soybean should not be planted in sandy, gravelly, or shallow soils to avoid drought stress. It should not be grown in waterlogged soils or soils with surfaces that can crust, as this will lead to poor seedling emergence.

·         Clear all vegetation before land preparation. The seedbed may be prepared manually with a hoe or animal-drawn implement or tractor.

·          Well-prepared land ensures good germination and reduces weed infestation. You can plant on ridges or on a flat seedbed.

·        

·         Selected soybean varieties are grown in Nigeria. Choose a variety suited to your agro-ecological zone.

·         Soybean variety selection should be based on maturity, yield potential, lodging, drought tolerance, and resistance to pests and diseases.

·         The maturity period should be the first consideration when choosing a variety suited to your geographical zone. Consider varieties that are earlier maturing rather than late maturing in areas with low rainfall. Although later maturity increases the yield potential, it is risky to grow late-maturing varieties in drier environments because of late-season drought.

·         Soybean seeds easily lose their viability.

·         It is common for soybean, even when stored properly, not to germinate after 12 –15 months in storage.

·         Therefore, use seeds that are not more than 12 months old to ensure good germination. Sort out the good seeds for planting to ensure that they are free from insects, disease infestation, and weed seeds.

·         Do not purchase seeds from the open market as the germination potential is not guaranteed.

·         Planting poor-quality seeds will not produce a good yield.

·         Always buy seeds from seed companies or seed producers nearest to you.

·         Test seeds for germination before planting.

·         The germination rate should be 85% or more to obtain a good stand. To conduct a quick seed germination test, select 400 seeds randomly and sow 100 seeds each in four wooden or plastic boxes or a prepared seedbed.

·         Sow one seed/hole at a distance of 10 cm between the seeds. Soak cloth- or paper-lined germination boxes or the seedbed well with water before sowing and provide water every morning and evening.

·         Start counting the seedlings 5 days after sowing and complete the counting within 10 days. A total count of 320 germinated seeds or more indicates a germination rate of 80% and above.

·         When the percentage of germination is 80% or less, the seed rate has to be increased accordingly to achieve 100% germination.

·         Soybean produces well over a wide range of planting dates, if moisture is available.

·         Do not plant too early because a prolonged dry spell after planting may result in permanent wilting of the crop and the need for replanting.

·         Late planting, on the other hand, may expose the crop to attack by some late season pests and also deprive the crop of sufficient moisture if the rains stop early. Plant soybean as soon as the rains are well established.

·         Soybean produces well over a wide range of planting dates, if moisture is available.

·         Do not plant too early because a prolonged dry spell after planting may result in permanent wilting of the crop and the need for replanting.

·         Late planting, on the other hand, may expose the crop to attack by some late season pests and also deprive the crop of sufficient moisture if the rains stop early.

·         Plant soybean as soon as the rains are well established.

v  

·         About 50–70 kg (20–28 standard mudus) are required to obtain a population of 444,444 plants/ha for soybean varieties.

·         Since soybean seed size varies among varieties, it is essential to consider planting in terms of seeds/unit area. It is not uncommon to see sizes ranging from 12.6 to 18.9 g/100 seeds

About 50–70 kg (20–28 standard mudus) are required to obtain a population of 444,444 plants/ha for soybean varieties.

 Since soybean seed size varies among varieties, it is essential to consider planting in terms of seeds/unit area. It is not uncommon to see sizes ranging from 12.6 to 18.9 g/100 seeds

Treat seeds with fungicides, such as Captan, Apron Plus, or Thiram, at the rate of 1 sachet/8 kg of seeds before planting for protection against soil-borne fungal diseases.

·         Sow soybean by hand, planter, or drilling. Plant 3 to 4 seeds/hole at a spacing of 75 cm between rows and 10 cm between stands.

·         Alternatively, drill seeds at 50–75 cm between rows and 5 cm within rows. For the early maturing varieties, a spacing of 50 cm between rows and 5–10 cm within rows is recommended because they respond better to narrow spacing than the late-maturing varieties.

·         Do not sow seeds more than 2–5 cm deep. Deeper planting may result in loss of vigor or failure of seedlings to emerge.

·         Sow soybean by hand, planter, or by drilling. Plant 3 to 4 seeds/hole at a spacing of 75 cm between rows and 10 cm between stands.

·         Alternatively, drill seeds at 50–75 cm between rows and 5 cm within rows. For the early maturing varieties, a spacing of 50 cm between rows and 5–10 cm within rows is recommended because they respond better to narrow spacing than the late-maturing varieties.

Do not sow seeds more than 2–5 cm deep. Deeper planting may result in loss of vigor or failure of seedlings to emerge.

Week 4 of June to week 1 of July.

·         A good fertilizer recommendation for soybean production depends on a good soil test. Under normal conditions, soybean as a legume should provide itself with nitrogen through biological nitrogen fixation.

·         Until nodulation occurs, the soybean plant depends on soil nitrogen for growth. Phosphorus is often the most deficient nutrient, therefore, apply optimum phosphorous fertilizer for good yield.

·         Apply phosphorus at the rate of 30 kg p/ha in the form of single super phosphate fertilizer (SUPA) (3 × 50 kg bags) in addition to 2½ × 50 kg bags of compound fertilizer NPK 15:15:15.

·         Nitrogen and potassium fertilizers are needed only when there are obvious deficiencies. Incorporate the fertilizer into the soil at land preparation during harrowing and leveling the field. Use the recommendations as a guide for fertilizing your soybean crop.

v  Soybean improves soil fertility and fixes nitrogen in the soil for the succeeding maize.

v  When grown in rotation with maize, it serves as a catch crop in controlling Striga hermonthica, a parasitic weed that attacks maize, by causing suicidal germination of Striga.

v  Recommended fertilizer rates (kg/ha) Materials

20 kg N

40 kg P2O5

20 kg K2O

2½ × 50 kg bags of NPK (15-15-15)

Plus 3 × 50 kg bags of SSP (SUPA)

·         Soybeans require relatively less water compared to maize and rice

·         It requires an annual rainfall of 500mm-600mm

High yielding, tolerant to fusarium wilt, late blight, with firm fruits and high brix good for processing. Yield is 56.7t/ha

Tomato requires a Temperature of 15-25 degrees Celsius, It also requires a rainfall of 500-1200mm per annum and it grows best in well-structured soil but it performs best on Sandy loam to loamy soil with a pH of 6.0-6.5. 

·         Plant tomato seeds on a well-prepared seedbed or plastic trays filled with topsoil mixed with animal manure.

·          Sow on a row when planting on a seedbed at a spacing of 5cm apart, and cover thinly with fine soil.

·         Mulching is necessary, cover with palm fronds or elephant grass to reduce the rate of evaporation/water loss from the soil.

·         Water the beds or trays early in the morning and late in the evening or when necessary.

·         Weeding should be carried out regularly.

·         Seeds will germinate 3-5 days after sowing depending on the soil temperature. Harden seedlings one week before transplanting through the gradual removal of shade of covered plants.

·         Seedlings are ready for transplanting between 3 to 4 weeks after sowing.

ADVANTAGES OF NURSERY PRACTICES

·         Affords easy management of the tender seedlings.

·         Timely and careful plant protection measures.

·          Enables the provision of the most favorable growth medium.

·          Economy of land and seed.

·          Gives more time for field operation.

Land to be used should be cleared at least four weeks before planting especially if it is virgin land. Other operations include stumping, plowing, and harrowing. The field should be harrowed once and bedded where necessary. Weeding can be done at two-week intervals to give room for weed seeds to germinate between each operation.

Depending on the location: Planting can be done in September, October, and December with a spacing of 60 x 60 cm without staking and 50 x 30 cm with staking.                                                                                                                                                                                       

Transplant the seedling to the field 3 to 6 weeks after sowing. A week before transplanting, seedlings should be hardened by reducing the application of water, but 12-14 hours before they are taken out of the seedbed, they should be thoroughly watered again to avoid excessive damage to the roots. Seedlings of 15-25 cm tall with 3-5 true leaves are most suitable for transplanting. Transplanting should be done in the afternoon or on a cloudy day to reduce the transplanting shock.

Water the plants immediately once they have been transplanted. When removing the seedlings, keep a large clump of soil attached to the roots to prevent them from being damaged. Spacing between plants and rows depends on the cultivar growth habit, soil type, cropping system, and also whether the plants are to be supported by stakes or left on the ground. The common spacing is 50 cm between plants and 75 - 100 cm between rows. If the tomatoes are to be supported by sticks, then the distances between rows can be decreased to 20-40 cm. Make the holes for the plants deep enough so that the lowest leaves are at ground level. Press the soil firmly around the root, and water around the base of the plant to settle the soil.

After transplanting, mulch can be placed on the ground around the plants to protect them from heat during the first five days. Mulch is composed of plant remains (e.g., rice straw or sorghum straw) used to cover the soil to control weed growth, prevent erosion, and conserve water. Care should be taken not to wet the lower leaves, as this can stimulate the growth of mold. A more advanced method is to put plastic mulch on the beds and punch holes in the plastic before planting. The transplanted plants should be protected from heat during the first five days, e.g., by covering them with large leaves. The seedlings are arranged on prepared beds 50cm x 75cm within and between rows respectively. This gives a plant population of 26,667 plants per hectare.

Features of Muturu breed

• Dual purpose breed (meat and draught)

• Are small bodied

• Black colour for forest type and black and white for savannah 

• Brown, red or tawny animals are recorded in the Northern populations

• Age at 1st calving, 635days, calving intervals, 353days

Features of N’Dama breed  

• Small-bodied in size, Light sandy coat with quite short and thin hair

• Meat has a low-fat and pleasant flavor

• Also gives milk, but a little – about 2 to 3 liters a day through 7 to 8 months

• Cows are recognized by their horns of lyre shape

• Age at 1st calving, 684days, Calving intervals, 350days

Features of White Fulani (Bunaji)

• White coat colour with black patches around eyes, ears, muzzles and tail tip 

• Average height is 130 cm

• Average lactation length is around 220 days. 

• Milk yield is 2.5-3kg per day 

• Average birth weights are 18.2 to 24.2 kg, mature bull 350 - 665 kg, cows 250 – 380kg

• Age at first calving 40-49 months, and average calving interval 403 day.

• Sokoto Gudali (Bokoloji)

  • Multiple coat colours, commonly black and white with light underside. 

  • Average height for male 130-138 cm and females 116-132 cm, 

  • Average lactation length 280 days

  • Milk yield is 4-5kg per day

  • Mature bull weighs 495-660kg and cows 240-355kg 

  • Age at first calving is 3-4 years, calving interval 1-2 years

  • 

  • Features of Keteku

    • White coat colour with black ears and nose and sometimes black speckled

    •  Body is long and muscled, but with poorly developed hindquarters

    • It has a compact body and more stockier than white fulani

Housing management for Cattle

1. Extensive 

2. Intensive

3. Semi-intensive

Extensive System or Range Feeding

-       Easiest and most unspecialized form of beef production.   

-       Animals are produced solely on range

-       Grazing is uncontrolled

-       Animal type best suitable for the condition are not the early maturing breeds.

The following breeds can be reared in this system:

 The Southern breeds: - which have more of the desirable beef characteristics e.g. N’dama, Muturu (West African Short Horn: WASH), and Keteku. 

-       The Northern breeds: - White Fulani, Red Bororo, Sokoto Gudali.

-       Most of the beef comes from this group of cattle.

-       They are managed by the Fulani herdsmen on purely extensive system.

 INTENSIVE SYSTEM

-       Complete confinement of the animal and movement is restricted. 

-       All feed is carried to the animal. 

-       Aimed at producing high quality beef by allowing the calf to express its full growth potential.

SEMI INTENSIVE SYSTEM

-       It is between the two extremes (extensive and intensive).

-       Consists essentially of partial rearing on pasture and supplemental feeds. 

-       The management practices adopted largely depends on the time of the year in which the calves are born i.e. whether wet or dry season.

HOUSING AND ACCOMODATION

In beef production, i.e the cattle that are meant for meat, the animals are housed as follows:

-       Bulls to be fattened are accommodated in a fenced feedlot without roof. 

-       The fence should be built with strong wooden or iron poles. 

-       A bull should be allowed a space of 2.56m and feeding space of 2.53m.

-       The feedlot should be divided into pens depending on the number of animals

    -   Strong wire gauze and strong wooden poles could be used for fencing

The bulls should be fed concentrate in the morning and evening with grazing in between. 

EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

-       Feed and water troughs

-       Hay racks. 

-       Strong plastics and metal buckets or basins

-       Spray race or dip

-       Weighing bridge

-       A loading and unloading area

-       Treatment Crush

-       Water tank

-       An office

-       Stores

-       Quarantine unit

-       First aid kit

FEEDS AND FEEDING

Depending on the purpose for which the cattle is being kept. Beef cattle is meant for meat while dairy cattle is meant for milk.

Feed and feeding for beef cattle

-       Feeds include; Roughages, concentrates, water, Salt lick, minerals and vitamin premix

-       Sources of roughages include grass, legume hays, cereal crop residues, sugar cane, baggasse etc.

Concentrate ration for beef cattle is contained in the table below:

Breeding and Management of Cattle

Considerations for Starting Beef Farming

-       Availability of bulls for fattening

-       Source of pasture

-       Availability of grains and roughages

-       Availability of demand for beef

-       Source for supplements

-       Availability of Veterinary services

-       Proximity to market

-       Equipment and shelter

-       Financial resources

        Types of mating/ breediing in cattle 

a. Natural mating: This is the common breeding in extensive system.

• The bulls mate with the cows on heat period
• Bull to cow ratio for mating is usually 1:25 to 1:40

b. Artificial insemination: This is much more technical and requires certain expertise

• This gives room for rapid genetic improvement
• It is more expensive than natural mating

Age of mating or breeding

• Local breeds get mated at 4 years 
• Foreign breeds can first be mated between 15 to 18 months

Vaccination Schedule

Deworming

Animals should be dewormed every 3 months with good dewormer. This demorming can be done in two ways:

• Rotational deworming: Here, different deworming drugs are used quarterly. This is to prevent drug resistance in these worms
• Strategic deworming: This involves targeting a particular time for deworming when the worms will be vulnerable to the dewormers use. Cattle can be dewormed at the beginning of the grazing period to kill the larvae of the worms that have been ingested  and also deworming at the end of the grazing period to kill the adult worms that might have developed over the grazing period. 

Diseases of Cattle

1. West African Dwarf (WAD) Goat

Location: Common in the humid forest zones of southern Nigeria.

Size: Small-sized breed.

Color: Varies — white, black, brown, or mixed.

Characteristics:

Hardy and well adapted to humid and tsetse-infested zones.

High resistance to diseases and parasites.

Early maturity and prolific breeders (twins and triplets are common).

Primarily raised for meat, though it can also produce milk.

2. Red Sokoto (Maradi) Goat

Location: Predominantly found in the northwestern region, especially Sokoto, Zamfara, and Katsina States.

Size: Medium.

Color: Reddish-brown or dark red coat.

Characteristics:

Known for high-quality leather ("Moroccan leather").

Good meat production.

Fairly good milk yield.

Susceptible to diseases in humid areas.

3. Sahel (Desert) Goat

Location: Northern Nigeria, especially in dry Sahelian zones.

Size: Larger than WAD and Red Sokoto goats.

Color: White, brown, or spotted.

Characteristics:

Long-legged, adapted to arid conditions.

Less body fat, good meat yield.

Lower disease resistance in southern zones.

Moderate milk production.

1. Extensive System (Free-Range or Traditional System)

• Description:
• Goats roam freely and graze on natural pastures, crop residues, roadsides, or fallow lands.
• Common in rural areas with low-input, subsistence farming.
• Features:
• Minimal housing or veterinary care.
• Little or no supplemental feeding.
• Low labor and capital requirement.
• Advantages:
• Low cost of production.
• Goats utilize a wide range of available vegetation.
• Disadvantages:
• Low productivity (poor weight gain, reproduction, and survival).
• Exposure to theft, predators, diseases, and road accidents.
• Seasonal variation in feed availability.

2. Semi-Intensive System

• Description:
• Combines free-grazing with partial confinement and supplemental feeding.
• Goats graze during the day and are housed at night.
• Features:
• Moderate feeding, housing, and veterinary care.
• Common among small-scale and progressive farmers.
• Advantages:
• Better health and growth rates than extensive system.
• Controlled breeding and disease management possible.
• Less exposure to environmental risks.
• Disadvantages:
• Requires more labor and input than extensive system.
• Feed and housing must be managed regularly.

3. Intensive System

• Description:
• Goats are fully confined and fed with formulated rations, forage, and supplements.
• Used mostly in urban/peri-urban farms, research centers, and commercial goat farms.
• Features:
• High investment in housing, feeding, water, and health care.
• Close monitoring of reproduction, growth, and health.
• Advantages:
• High productivity (better weight gain, milk yield, and reproduction).
• Controlled environment reduces disease and theft.
• Efficient space utilization.
• Disadvantages:
• High initial and running costs.
• Requires skilled labor and good management.
• Risk of disease outbreaks if hygiene is poor.

4. Backyard/Household System

• Description:
• Goats are kept in small numbers around homes, often tethered or confined in simple pens.
• Common among women and low-income households.
• Features:
• Uses kitchen waste, household leftovers, and local forage.
• Mostly for subsistence, occasional sales, or cultural purposes.
• Advantages:
• Low cost and easy to manage.
• Provides regular income and protein source.
• Disadvantages:
• Limited scale and productivity.
• May cause environmental or neighbor nuisance if not well managed.

1. Traditional Housing (Local/Extensive System)

·         Structure: Simple huts or sheds made from mud, bamboo, palm fronds, or thatched roofs.

·         Flooring: Earthen or wooden planks.

·         Common in: Rural and village settings.

·         Advantages: Cheap, easy to construct.

·         Disadvantages: Poor hygiene, poor protection from rain and predators.

2. Elevated Wooden Platforms

·         Structure: Raised wooden floors, often 2–3 feet above ground.

·         Roofing: Thatched or zinc sheets.

·         Walling: Slatted for ventilation.

·         Advantages:

o    Prevents moisture build-up.

o    Easy droppings collection under the platform.

·         Common in: Southern Nigeria with high rainfall.

3. Concrete or Semi-Permanent Pens (Semi-Intensive)

·         Structure: Brick or block walls with zinc roofing.

·         Flooring: Concrete with good drainage slope.

·         Compartments: Feeding area, sleeping area, and space for kids.

·         Advantages:

o    Better disease control.

o    Suitable for small to medium-scale farms.

4. Modern Intensive Housing (Zero Grazing System)

·         Structure: Solid walls, proper roofing, and good ventilation system.

·         Facilities: Feeding troughs, drinkers, kid pens, and sometimes biogas/droppings collection.

·         Materials: Cement, iron sheets, steel, treated wood.

·         Advantages:

o    Efficient space use.

o    Enables controlled feeding and monitoring.

·         Common in: Urban or commercial farms.

Recommended Space Requirements

Materials Commonly Used

·         Roofing: Zinc sheets, thatch.

·         Walls: Bamboo, mud, cement blocks.

·         Floor: Wooden slats, concrete, earth.

·         Fencing: Wire mesh, bamboo sticks, or wooden poles.

 Hygiene and Maintenance

·         Regular removal of droppings and urine.

·         Disinfection of pens at intervals.

·         Provision of dry bedding (straw or sawdust).

·         Ensure drainage channels to avoid water stagnation.

Balanced Diet Planning

·         Ensure goats receive the right proportions of:

o    Forages (grasses, browse leaves, legumes).

o    Concentrates (grains, cakes, brans).

o    Minerals (salt licks or premix).

o    Clean water (always available).

·         Adjust feed based on age, breed, reproductive stage, and purpose (meat, milk, breeding).

 Feeding Schedule

·         Feed goats twice daily (morning and evening) in semi-intensive or intensive systems.

·         For grazing goats, supplement with concentrates once daily, especially in the dry season.

·         Young kids and pregnant/lactating does require additional protein and energy.

 Feeding Methods

·         Free-grazing: Natural, low-cost, but may lack consistency.

·         Cut-and-carry (zero grazing): Forage is harvested and delivered to goats in pens.

·         Tethering: Common in backyard systems; limits movement but controls grazing.

·         Supplementation: With concentrates or crop residues — especially during dry season.

Mineral and Salt Supplementation

• Provide salt licks or mineral blocks (store-bought or homemade).
• Prevent deficiencies in calcium, phosphorus, selenium, and zinc.
• Especially important for pregnant and lactating goats.

Water Management

• Ensure constant access to clean, fresh water.
• Wash water troughs regularly to prevent disease.
• Adult goats may drink 2–5 liters/day, more in hot weather or during lactation.

1. Selection of Breeding Stock

Does (Females):

·         Early maturity (first heat around 6–8 months).

·         Good maternal traits (milk yield, mothering ability).

·         No history of abortions or birth defects.

·         Good body condition score (not too thin or obese).

Bucks (Males):

·         Strong, active, and free from deformities.

·         Proven fertility (can impregnate multiple does).

·         Fast-growing, disease-free, and from productive lines.

·         Should not be closely related to the does (to avoid inbreeding).

2. Breeding Systems

3. Heat Detection in Does

Signs a doe is in heat:

·         Swollen, moist vulva with mucus discharge.

·         Frequent bleating and restlessness.

·         Mounting other goats or standing to be mounted.

·         Loss of appetite and drop in milk yield.

·         Tail wagging and seeking the buck.

✅ Mate the doe within 12–24 hours of heat detection.

4. Mating Ratio

·         1 buck for every 20–30 does (if healthy and proven).

·         Avoid overworking young bucks — limit to 1–2 matings/day.

Extensive System (Traditional/Free Range)

2. Semi-Intensive System

3. Intensive System (Commercial/Farm-Based)

Sheep Housing Requirements

 Types of Sheep Housing